The Mystery of Healing: Oil, Anointing, and the Unity of the Local Church
The Holy Sacraments of Baptism, Chrismation and Holy Communion
The Seven Sacraments of the Greek Orthodox Church
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From
LIVING TRADITION, YMCA Press, Paris, n.d. [in Russian]
Translated by Fr. Alvian N. Smirensky
[Footnotes
in this translation are taken directly from the Russian text and do not
conform with the accepted American academic style. They are given for
information and illustration of the author's thoroughness. Those readers
familiar with Russian may recognize the names of the various sources used
by the author. A.N.S ]
+
On that great day of the mystical Pentecost the beginning of the new kingdom
of Grace was forged B the community of the New Israel, the Church of Christ
B Christ's Mystical Body. Human nature, torn asunder by sin, was reestablished
in the Church. The proud structure of the Tower of Babel, the mixture
of tongues and the separation of humanity was set aside by the fiery tongues
of the Holy Spirit in the liturgy of Pentecost and the Divine-human catholic
body of the Church.
"That they may all be one, even as thou, Father art in me and I in
thee, that they may all be one" (John 17:21), as Christ prayed to
the Father in the High Priestly prayer. This prayer and Christ's preceding
farewell discourse with his supper companions, his friends the Apostles,
in the Upper Room, is a hymn which proclaims and solemnizes love and the
theology of the Eucharist, is found in the Gospel of the "beloved
disciple" John, and corresponds to the description of the Last Supper
in the Synoptic Gospels. The first Eucharist which took place there, which
established the New Covenant. "Do this in remembrance of me".
In carrying out Christ's commandment, being fully conscious of the great
significance of the Eucharist, the Apostles performed that Mystery. The
reconstruction of that first form of the Eucharist presents a complex
problem.[1] In all likelihood the Apostolic Eucharist's form resembled,
if not copied, the order of the Hebrew Habura, or perhaps the Passover
Kiddush.
The Book of Acts states that following Apostle Peter's first sermon and
the baptism of 3,000 persons "they devoted themselves to the Apostles'
teaching and fellowship to the breaking of bread and the prayers"
(Acts 2:42) and "attending the Temple together and breaking bread
in their homes, they partook of food with glad and generous hearts"
(Acts 2:46). This breaking of bread illumined the early Christian community's
whole life which was a constant joy of the blessed Eastertide. "And
all who believed were together and had all things in common; and they
sold their possessions and goods and distributed them to all, as any had
need" (Acts 2:44-45). "Now the company of those who believed
were of one heart and soul, and no one said that any of the things which
he possessed was his own. . .There was not a needy person among them"
(Acts 4: 32, 34). The lives of the Christians was suffused with the consciousness
that "if one member suffers, all suffer together; if one member is
honored, all rejoice together" (I Cor 12:26). The way for resolving
social problems for Christians was through the "Cup of thanksgiving",
the difficult aspects of which in the Roman Empire as well as today disturbs
our hearts, just as it disturbed the hearts of Christians in the first
centuries. The Eucharist intensified the acuteness of the problem. The
Eucharist united and equalized everyone B the lords and the slaves, the
rich and the poor. All Church members were equal and free in Christ. All
were children of God, all were Christ's friends, brothers and sisters,
"Because there is one loaf, we who are many are one body, for we
all partake of the same loaf" (I Cor 10:17).
This oneness of all Church members in Christ in the image of the Holy
Trinity and the union in love given in the Eucharist[2] can be heard in
all the Eucharistic prayers beginning with[3]]
"Let Grace come and let this world pass away" the Liturgist
prays. And the community greets the Eucharistic Christ with a solemn Messianic
hymn. "Hosanna to the God of David. . .Maranatha — Our Lord,
come". He appears to the believers in the Eucharist. The Parousia
approaches. The visions and hopes of the ancient prophets are realized.
"Thy Kingdom come". The Messianic kingdom begins. "Behold,
the King of glory enters." Christ reigns. The Christians participate
in the bridal night of the Lamb, in the Messianic banquet, They offer
the prayer of thanksgiving with one voice and partake in Christ's Body
and Blood. This was the joy about which the Book of Acts speaks. This
was the Grace-filled experience which inspired those feats of witness
and martyrdom.
The unity of the Eucharist, of the community's feast of the Cross and
resurrection which is lucidly expressed in every one of the liturgical
rites — of the Church's "common act," beginning with its first
description in Justin Martyr's Apology[4] (which was written between 150
and 155 C.E.) The Eucharist is celebrated on the day of resurrection —
"the day of the Sun." All members of the community take part
in it. Following the reading of the Sacred Scripture and the sermon, all
bring the offering — the Gifts — the sacrifice to God, the elements for
the Mystery, and in this way participate in the common Eucharistic offering
of the sacrifice.[5] "We make an offering to God not as if he needs
it, but in thanksgiving for his providence and for the sanctification
of creation . . .The Word desires that even we should offer gifts at the
altar, often and without omission"[6] Gifts to neighbors were added
to these Gifts not as a simple act of charity but as an offering to God.
"Those who prosper, and who so wish, contribute, each one as much
as he chooses to. What is collected is deposited with the president and
he takes care of orphans and widows and those who are in want on account
of sickness, or any other cause, and those who are in bonds and the strangers
who are sojourners among us and, briefly, he is the protector of all those
in need."[7] Without love, the sacrifice is incomplete (Mt. 5:23-24).
Participation in the liturgical thanksgiving was preceded by a reconciliation
and healing of the mutual relationships of the community's members. This
requirement is brought out in "with a holy kiss" (I Cor 16:20),
A "the kiss of love" (I Peter 5:14), "the kiss of reconciliation"
(Cyril of Jerusalem, Five Mystagogical Sermons) "the Divine
kiss" (Dionysus Areopagite), which "mutually unites the souls".
Tertullian writes, "When is the kiss between the brothers not more
appropriate than at the time when the common prayer, more worthy to God
is offered, after which they, as participants in our prayerful zeal, seal
their brotherly union with us with a kiss. What prayer is complete unless
sealed with a holy kiss?"[8] "Let us love one another."
A oneness of mind is impossible without love. Christ is the source of
love.[9] United in one body with this "sacred act of peace"
(Dionysius Areopagite), which brings about "a oneness of mind and
soul, and a verbal solemnity" (St. Maximus Confessor), The community
approaches the Eucharistic prayer which is read by the bishop surrounded
by his clergy. The prayer is often improvised since the Anaphora is still
in a state of flux. The liturgist, on behalf of all the faithful offers
thanksgiving and the "reasonable and bloodless service" "in
behalf of all and for all". He is not separated from the faithful.
He is the "President of the brothers" (St Justin ) the "mouth
of all" (Theodore Mopsuestia. and Narsai), he is the corytheus of the chorus "united with the bounds of love" which offers
"thanksgiving and praise to the Giver of the world to all."
The whole community participates creatively in the Eucharistic prayer,
the Eucharistic offering and thanksgiving, sealing the prayer with their
collective and triumphant "Amen."[10] The first communal act,
the Liturgy, was completed by this act of prayer. It was one of the most
important responsibilities not only of the hierarchy but of all members
of the Church, the people of the "New Israel", "a chosen
race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation" (I Peter 2:9. St Basil's
Anaphora), inasmuch as in the Church that ideal, the universal priesthood,
which was awaited by Moses (Exodus 19:6) and the prophets, was realized.
To be sure, this teaching about the universal priesthood does not exclude
the Divinely established hierarchy who celebrate the Mysteries. "You
should regard that Eucharist as valid which is celebrated either by the
bishop or by someone he authorizes".[11]
St. Cyril of Jerusalem pointedly stresses the people's participation in
the Eucharistic prayer[12] and St John Chrysostom profoundly laments over
the indifference expressed by many Christians towards the Liturgy. "The
people have an active participation in the prayers. For example, common
prayers are offered for the mentally disturbed and the penitents by both
the priest and the people. At the crucial moment of the Great Mystery
the priest prays for the people and the people pray for the priest, since
the words "and with thy Spirit" mean nothing less than that.
The prayers of thanksgiving are also in common, since it is not the priest
alone who offers the Thanksgiving, but all the people." St John Chrysostom
emphasizes the responsibility of all Church members as he continues: "All
this I say that each of those who are subordinate would be attentive,
so that we would know that we are all one body and we differ one from
another as one member from another, and that we would all not burden the
priests alone, but all be concerned about the whole Church as a Body common
to all of us."[13]
The deacon's summons: "Let us stand aright!. Let us stand with
fear! That we may offer the Holy Oblation in peace" is addressed
to all the faithful. The Eucharistic prayers are addressed to God on behalf
of the whole community ("We" prayers). For example in the Syrian
Liturgy of St James, following the words of the Anaphora after the priest
pronounces "Do this in commemoration of me" we have:
People: We proclaim your death, O Lord and we profess your
resurrection and we await your second coming. We ask of you mercy and
grace and we pray for the remission of sins, and may your mercy be upon
all of us.
Priest:
Calling to mind, O Lord, your death and resurrection
on the third day. . .we offer you this awesome sacrifice renewed in word
and not in blood. . .Your people and your heritage supplicate you and
through you and with you, your Father, and say:
People:
Have mercy almighty Lord God, have mercy on us.
Priest: And we, your helpless and sinful servants, O Lord,
thank you and praise you for everyone and for all things.
People:
We praise you, we thank you, we bow before you, we thank
you and pray for forgiveness, O Lord God, have mercy and hear us.
Deacon:
How awesome is the present hour. How terrible, my beloved,
is that moment… when the Holy Spirit comes upon this Eucharist. . .and
sanctifies it. . .You who are present, with fear and trembling, stand
and pray. . .Let us proclaim and thrice say: Lord have mercy!
Priest:
[Pronounces the Epiklesis]
People:
Lord have mercy! (Three times), sealing the Epiklesis
with a double Amen
Later the people are invited by the Deacon to participate in specific
parts of the intercessory Eucharistic prayer which is read by the priest.
Each of the six parts is affirmed with the people's "Amen".
They end the Anaphora with the words "As it was and is from generation
to generation and (will continue) for future ages. Amen."[14]
This communal participation during the offering of the Eucharistic sacrifice
is culminated with the communal partaking of the Holy Body and Blood of
Christ. The faithful, united "in one heart and mind" through
their prayer, are united with Christ and in Him, with each other. "And
unite all of us to one another who become partakes of the one Bread and
Cup in the communion of the Holy Spirit" (St Basil's Anaphora). Each
person's partaking was affirmed by "Amen," perhaps a collective
one.[15]
The collective communion by all participants at each Liturgy was the norm
in the Ancient Church. It was closely linked with the general Eucharistic
prayer and offering. Those who were under bans and deprived of the right
to approach the Chalice, could not participate in the Liturgy.[16] The
Liturgy took place on Sunday (Teaching of the 12 Apostles. Justin
Martyr's Apology. cf Acts 20:7) In the 4th century the
Eucharist was celebrated on Saturday as well, in Alexandria, Egypt in
general, in Asia Minor and in Constantinople.[17] In some parts of the
Church Communion was even more frequent. Thus St Basil, in his letter
to Patricia in Caesarea, writes: "We partake four times each week,
on the Lord's day, on Wednesday, on Friday, and on Saturday, as well as
on other days if there be a memorial of some Saint", but "it
is good and beneficial to partake and receive the Holy Body and Blood
of Christ on each day".[18] The practice of daily Communion was common
both in Rome and in Spain.[19]
At the end of the Third and beginning of the Fourth centuries the Great
Lent gradually becomes established, the sacred Forty Days, which grew
out of the brief pre-Paschal fast of the early years. Lent was a time
of repentance and grieving over sins. During the sorrowful days of Lent
the complete Liturgy, the feast of the Christian community with its Paschal
and Resurrectional joy of Golgotha and the radiant night, could not be
celebrated. However, the faithful were permitted to receive Communion
even during the days of Lent. This was the inception of the Presanctified
Liturgy which was a combination of Vespers with Communion. This "Liturgy"
offers the opportunity for Communion outside of a full Liturgy. This was
permitted in the Early Church. Thus for example, Justin Martyr notes than
the Holy Gifts were brought by the deacons to those who were not present.[20]
The Early Church knew of the practice of reserving the Holy Gifts in the
homes and of self-Communion.[21] This was later continued in monastic
practice.[22] However, neither self-Communion nor the Communion of the
sick could replace the complete Liturgy with its communal Eucharistic
sacrifice and the corporate Communion. Self-Communion was permitted "for
the sake of need" just as today presence at the Anaphora and the
offering of Gifts without Communion, or a kind of "spiritual Communion"
is permitted.[23]
The corporate character of the Eucharist called for the celebration of
only one Liturgy in each city.[24] The Western practice of the Fermentum
sent by the bishop to parish churches developed from this.
This corporate Eucharist in the Early Church gave light to the world and
sanctified it. The participants in the Kingdom of Christ in the temple
at the Liturgy were inspired with the desire to bring love, joy and light
to the world for the healing of social illnesses which distort God's wonderful
universe. The Christian's whole life, sanctified by the Church's Mysteries,
took place near the Eucharist and was sanctified by it, inasmuch as all
Mysteries were united with it. Arising out of the baptismal font of regeneration,
receiving the blessed privilege to address God as his Father and signed
with "the Seal of the Gift of the Holy Spirit" joyfully, the
newly baptized, for the first time approached the Sacred Cup. This is
where those entering into the bridal union in Christ received their blessing
from the Church.[25] Sinners who disturbed the Church's conscience carried
out lengthy and severe penitence for the sake of that Cup. The gifts of
the grace of priesthood and of the Blessing of Oil for the sick were given
at the Liturgy Other sacred rites, such as monastic tonsure, the sanctification
of Chrism and the blessing of Epiphany water likewise occurred at the
Liturgy.[26]
This was the Eucharistic practice of the Early Church. The Eucharist was
the joy in the life of the individual member of the Church. It was the
foundation and the grace-filled inspiration for the ascent upon the ladder
of virtue. It was the "Medicine of immortality, the means for healing,
that we not die but live constantly in Jesus Christ". It is the Deification
of the believer in Christ, his Theosis. However, the Eucharist has a corporate
character as well. Participation in the Eucharist is the common act of
all Church members. And should someone, for one reason or another, usually
due to negligence towards that great spiritual treasure, the Holy Gifts,
due to a neglect of one's responsibility as a member of the Church and
a neglect of the commandment of love towards other members of the Church,
that someone should refuse or decline to participate in that corporate
act, then the Church would become concerned and would immediately attempt
to discover a cause for that spiritual wound in order to heal it. The
canons of the Councils of the post-Constantinian era are permeated
with that concern. The Empire's adoption of Christianity brought numerous
nominal Christians into the Church. "For the majority, the purely
sacrificial zeal of Christianity was replaced by the need to be socially
correct and at times even by self-service" (Metr. Sergii of Moscow).
The spiritual intensity of Christians was weakened and brought about a
negligent and unworthy relation towards the Liturgy. There were occasions
of people leaving the Liturgy following the reading of the Scripture and
the sermon. Such conduct distressed St John Chrysostom. Canon Two of the
Council of Antioch in 341 and Canon 9 of the Apostolic Canons excommunicated
those "who come in and hear the Scriptures but do not stay for the
prayers and the Holy Communion" or, as the final canon of the Slavonic Kormchaya of 1787 which reads, in agreement with the commentaries
of Zonaras and Aristinus: "Those who do not remain in Church until
the final prayer are not Communed.[27] By that time Christians stopped
coming to the Liturgy. This carelessness towards the Liturgy on the part
of the people "who dissipated the strength and fervor of faith and
turned towards the cares of the world"[28] roused the Church to adopt
decisive measures. Canon 21 of Elvira (305), Canon 11 of Sardica (343)
which was repeated in Canon 80 of Trullo (692) deposes the clergy and
excommunicates clerics and laymen "who fail to attend the Liturgy
for three Sundays during three consecutive weeks". These measures
did not have the desired effect. We know that in Byzantium both the Patriarch
and the Emperor would leave the temple following the reading of the Gospel.[29]
The decline in spiritual life continued and expressed itself in a diminished
participation in the Liturgy and Communion. At the time of Chrysostom
some people received Communion once or twice a year notwithstanding the
Hierarch's admonitions. St Cassian likewise condemns infrequent participation
in the Eucharist. "Daily penances for monastics", attributed
to St Theodore Studite, were directed against that practice.[30]
Other changes in Liturgical practice developed. There was a gradual introduction
of the secret[31] reading of the Eucharistic prayers. Some
liturgists see the genesis of this practice in Canon 19 of the Council
in Laodicaea (343) which may be questionable.[32] The reading of the Anaphora
secretly prevailed during Justinian's epoch. Vainly struggling against
this innovation, and referring to Romans and I Corinthians 14, the Emperor
prior to his death decreed: "We command that all bishops and presbyters
do not pronounce the prayers of the Divine Offering and Holy Baptism secretly,
but with a voice (meta phonis) which could be heard by the faithful people,
that the minds of the listeners would be moved towards greater pangs of
conscience. . . It is fitting that prayers to Our Lord Jesus Christ our
God, with the Father and the Holy Spirit, in all occasions and at other
services be pronounced loudly (meta phonis). Those refusing to do so will
give their answer before God's throne and if we should find out, we will
not leave them without punishment"[33]
By the 8th century the secret reading of the Anaphora becomes
the commonly accepted practice.[34] The perplexities, questions and arguments
among the liturgists continue and are given as the explanation for the
evolution of the prayer behind the ambo[35] as a substitute Anaphora for
the laity. "Some, standing outside the sanctuary, are frequently
puzzled, arguing amongst themselves and saying: what is the point, the
purpose and the meaning of the prayers quietly read by the bishop. They
would like to have some understanding of them and thus the Holy Fathers
wrote (the prayer behind the ambo) as a summary of all that was prayed
for (during the Liturgy) letting them who desire to have an understanding
of just the fringe of the whole garment".[36]
By the 8th century the secret reading of the Eucharistic canon
which engendered silent Masses was observed in the West.[37] Various assumption
were made for the reason for introducing secret readings of the Anaphora.[38]
The proposition that this practice was adopted for shortening the Liturgy,
for the same reason which St Basil the Great and St John Chrysostom shortened
the Anaphora, as given by St Proclus,[39] cannot be accepted as convincing
since at that time the process of lengthening the Liturgy of the Catechumens
began and there was the introduction of litanies and processions before
the Liturgy. There was also the beginning of our Services of Intercession
which for some time were performed prior to the Liturgy and continues
to be in some places, and not after it. One cannot agree with the assumption
of Duchesne about the difficulties of reading the prayers aloud in large
temples[40] or with the hypothesis of the misunderstanding coming out
of the incorrect understanding of the word mystikos, placed before the
Anaphora as a directive "for some kind of a special mystical method"
of reading it.
Neither is the hypothesis that the secret reading of prayers arose out
of the decrease in the number of communicants. Since the celebrants alone
took Communion at the Liturgy, they alone read the Anaphora for themselves,
secretly.[41]
On the other hand it is quite evident that the secret reading is connected
with the Eucharistic carelessness of the Church's people. The Eucharist
is the Mystery which evokes a sacred trembling in the faithful. "Let
all mortal flesh keep silent, and in fear and trembling stand". Such
trembling is inherent in the Liturgy at all times. But the Eucharistic
carelessness of the people forced the Fathers and the liturgists to focus
their principal attention towards the development of the necessary reverence,
a sacred fear and trembling, before the Holy Gifts, before which the Angels
veil their faces. The Holy Cup must be approached "with fear and
love". The sacred trembling completes the usual feeling of unworthiness
and sinfulness. In the Eucharist is the Christ B rex tremendae magestasis.
One can find in St John Chrysostom, who grieves over the collapse of the
Eucharistic sensitivity and fervor, constant reminders for the need of
sacred trembling before the Awesome Mysteries.[42] Suggestions for such
attitudes are found in St Cyril of Jerusalem.[43] St John Chrysostom,
during whose time the Anaphora was undoubtedly read aloud,[44] likewise
had great influence, especially in Syria. It is among the Syrian writers
and liturgists that the prayers with "sacred trembling" are
especially developed, which were almost completely absent from the ancient
liturgical rites, as in the Liturgy of the Apostolic Constitution in the
Anaphora of Serapion of Tmuita, and in the Fathers of the 4th
century, with the exception of St John Chrysostom and St Cyril mentioned
above. In Theodore of Mopsuestia's commentary on the liturgy given in
book two of Liber ad Baptizandos[45] the term "fearsome"
is found constantly, as applied to the Eucharistic Mystery, the Offering
and the Holy Gifts. Here directions are given for a mystical silence.
"When we approach silence during the great and reverent fear the
priest begins the Anaphora.[46] The hymn of the Seraphim is sung by all
those present. . .and the priest unites audibly with the invisible hosts."[47]
"The priest reads these prayers quietly".[48] The Nestorian
author Narsai (H 502), founder of the Nyzbin school and who was under
the strong influence of Theodore of Mopsuestia, writes about the feelings
of fear and trembling and the silent reading of the Anaphora. In his 17th
homily[49] he describes and comments on the liturgy contemporary with
him which is very similar except for the Anaphora, with the Nestorian
liturgy of Addai and Mari.[50]
For example, following the Creed "the priest brings the Mystery of
the redemption of our life, full of trembling and clothed with fear and
great awe. The priest abides in awe and in great fear and trembling because
of his trespasses and the trespasses of all the children of the Church...
Trembling and fear for himself and for the people lies upon the priest
at this awesome hour. In fearful conditions of service he even brings
on fear to the Seraphim, the son of decay as the mediator, abides in great
fear.[51] The fearful king, mystically immolated and buried, and the fearful
guardians (angels), standing in fear in honor of their Lord. The priest
abides in these thoughts for the Divine service, reverently and with great
fear and trembling."[52] The deacon's exclamation is permeated with
the same feelings.
The Church's herald now calls upon and reminds each person to confess
his sins to the Lord and petition Him with a clean heart. 'Let us stand
aright!', he says 'look with your mind at the great Mystery taking place,
which you, sinful ones, accomplish. The awesome Mysteries are blessed
with the hands of the priest. Let each one abide in fear and awe while
this is accomplished. The priest has already began to pray himself: all
of you now pray with him that your peace may increase through his intercession.
Direct the sight of your heart to the ground and raise the secret sight
of your mind and implore fervently. Raise the petitions of all to God
at this hour full of trembling and with great fear." Following this
there is a call for silence. "Let no one dare to say a single word
with your mouths...Let the heart pray and not the mouth and let him petition
with the mind and not the mouth."[53] After the exclamation "Let
us lift up our hearts" the whole community observes silence and everyone
prepares for the fervent prayer in their hearts. The priest does not speak
and the deacon stands silent. The people are calm and do not speak. .
.The priest is the mouth of the Church[54], he opens his mouth and conversed
with God in secret[55] as with a friend."[56] He proclaims the prayer's
end aloud. After the hymn to the Seraphim, sung by all the people "the
whole Church returns to silence and the priest begins his conversation
with God."[57] At the end of the prayer he raises his voice, that
the people may hear him ... and blesses the Mysteries with his hand. .
.and the people with their "Amen" affirms and concurs with the
priest's prayer. Then the Church's herald calls the people and says: "Pray
in your mind. Peace be to you"...[58] During the invocation of the
Holy Spirit "the Church's herald proclaims: Stand in silence and
in fear: peace be to you. Let all the people be in fear at that moment,
when the mystery of the descent of the Holy Spirit takes place".
The priest raises his voice and points to the Mysteries with his hand."[59]
The first evidence of silent or quiet reading of the Anaphora and the
mystical Eucharistic silence is found in Theodore of Mopsuestia and Narsai.
It is natural to assume that this practice arose in Syria and as a consequence
first spread in Eastern Syria. The practice of the disciplina arcana likewise had an effect upon the secret reading of the Anaphora, in order
to protect the sanctity and the majesty of Christian mysteries. This is
clear from the response of the Syrian author, Bishop Jacob of Edessa (640-708)
to the question: "Why are Mysteries performed behind closed doors
and traditionally in silence."[60] It is likely due to the demands
of the disciplina arcana and this explains absence of the words
of institution in the interpretations of Theodore of Mopsuestia, in the
rites of the Nestorian liturgies of Addai and Mari and their oral tradition.[61]
Certain ideas expressed in the Corpus Areopagiticum, especially
in The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy undoubtedly influenced the implementation
of the secret reading of the Anaphora.[62] The Corpus apparently appeared
in Syria[63] at the end of the 5th century and became very
popular there.[64] The mystic Sergius Rissaina (H 536) translated it into
Syrian. From Syria the Corpus finds its way to Constantinople and was
at first looked upon with great suspicion.[65]
The Liturgy in the book The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy strikingly
resembles and perhaps is the same as that of Narsai, with only the difference
that in Narsai's diptychs living members of the Church are included and
the Creed is placed following the carrying of the Gifts to the altar.[66]
One of the chief ideas of The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy which heralded
the beginning of liturgical symbolism, is the teaching of the ecclesiastical
structure, the various levels of performing the Divine mysteries, the
fulness of which belongs only to the bishop. This he relates to the lesser
levels, particularly to the second or "contemplative" rank of
the laity, the holy people, by sensual signs and symbols which they are
capable to discern. The divine hierarch ". . .generously hands down
to his inferiors that unique hierarchic understanding which is especially
his own. He resorts to a multitude of sacred enigmas. Then, freely and
untrammeled by anything beneath him, he returns to his own starting point
without having any loss. In his mind he journeys toward the One. With
a clear eye he looks upon the basic unity of those realities underlying
the sacred rites. He makes the divine return to the primary things the
goal of his procession towards secondary things, which he has undertaken
out of love for humanity."[67]
This distinction of the divine hierarch from the people and the motive
for mystery is emphasized in the designation of the Liturgy as the "mystery
of mysteries", the "perfection of mysteries," "the
mystery of the synaxis or communion". For example, "Having himself
partaken of and imparted the divine communion (to others) the hierarch
concludes the ceremony with a sacred thanksgiving together with the entire
assembly (which participates in the thanksgiving, privy only to the divine
symbols) but he himself always elevated by the divine Spirit to the divine
hierarchy, in the purity of the order of the divine image and the blessed
and rational contemplation".[68] Or as later paraphrased by George
Pachimer, "the crowd sees only the divine symbols since it cannot
understand anything higher, and the hierarch himself is led to those prime
symbols, to the very real Body and Blood of the Lord, believing that the
symbols present before him have been changed into the true Body and true
Blood by the holy and all-powerful Spirit".[69]
These views on the material character of the Eucharist led to the spreading
of the Syrian practice of reading the Anaphora secretly and the development
of those moods of fear and trembling[70] which is especially developed
in Narsai's commentary who was familiar if not with the Corpus Areopagiticum then in any case, with its basic ideas which, one may say, floated through
the Syrian atmosphere. It must be noted however that the secret reading
of the Eucharistic prayers at first did not mean the laity's estrangement
from the participation in the Eucharistic offering. According to Theodore
of Mopsuestia "the priest is the voice of the Church's community".[71]
"We all constitute the one Body of Christ our Lord, and we are all
members of one another and the priest merely carries out the responsibilities
of the member which is higher than other members of the body such as,
for example, the eye or the tongue. . .As the tongue he offers the prayers
of all[72]. . .All of us make the offering with the priest and even if
the latter stands alone in order to make the offering, he does this as
the tongue, on behalf of the whole body. In this way the offered Gift
belongs to all, and it is placed before all of us that we may equally
participate in it."[73]
According to Narsai, "the priest offers the prayer of the whole community
with the petition,"[74] and this is affirmed by the Monophysite Jacob
of Sarug (H521), Narsai's younger contemporary who writes in his homily
Atogether with the priest, the whole community asks the Father to glorify
his Son."[75]
In spite of the secret reading of the Eucharistic prayers in the Syrian
and Persian rites of the liturgy, the laity's participation is stressed
thanks to the summons and exclamations of the deacon before each part
of the Anaphora. Linked together, these exclamations become a litany.
Although the Corpus Areopagiticum in no way suggests to diminish
the corporate nature of the great Amystery of the synaxis", it did
introduce a significant distance between the laity and the sacred ministers.
It diminished laity's understanding of their responsibility for the Eucharistic
prayer. By the middle of the 6th century the Corpus spreads
over the whole East, it intrudes into Constantinople and has a great influence
upon later Byzantine theology. John Skithopolis writes Scholias (530-540)
on the Corpus.[76] Along with the Corpus, the practice of
the secret reading of the Anaphora is also spread. The groundwork for
this was prepared by St John Chrysostom's teaching about fear and trembling
which must accompany one's approach to the Holy Gifts, and by the great
Christological controversies. Justinian vainly struggles against this
new practice. His Novella could not curb the process once it began. John
Moschus speaks of the audible reading of the Anaphora as occurring only
in some places. A solemn Great Entrance, with all its symbolism, is introduced,
along with the Cherubicon and total fear and trembling.[77]
The liturgist of the years following wrote: "The priest approaches
and comes into contact with the Angelic powers and stands as if no longer
on earth but at the heavenly altar, before the awesome altar of God's
throne."[78] The priest, with boldness, approaches the throne of
God's grace. . .Opening his mouth before God and alone conversing with
Him, and looking upon the Lord's glory no longer obscured in the clouds,
as it was for Moses in the Tabernacle, but with an open face. And with
Divine inspiration and faith in the Holy Trinity, he secretly utters the
Mystery before God, and in mystical actions proclaims the Mystery."[79]
Following the introduction of the secret reading of the Anaphora,, the
Liturgy remained and could not do otherwise, a corporate Divine service,
but somehow the responsibility for the corporate prayer and offering was
taken away from the laity. With the exception of the initial dialogue,
between the liturgist and the people, the rest of the Anaphora, which
goes back to Apostolic times, began to be heard by the laity in disjointed
exclamations, more often as disjointed clauses. "Singing the triumphant
hymn, shouting, proclaiming and saying;". . ."Thine own of Thine
own, we offer unto Thee, in behalf of all and for all". . ."Especially
for our most holy. . ." During the reading of the Anaphora the people
hear the singing of "It is meet and right". . ."Holy, Holy,
Holy. . ." "We praise Thee. . .", "It is meet. . ."
or the appropriate substitute, . The choir's singing separated the liturgist
from the people and reinforced the passivity of the latter. With the advent
of the icon screen, the practice of reading the Anaphora behind closed
Holy or Royal doors grew, with the exception of the bishop's liturgy.
The introduction of the secret reading of the Anaphora contributed to
further weakening of Eucharistic piety and life. The Church's greatest
prayer, the Eucharistic prayer which in ancient times, many knew by memory,[80]
began to be forgotten by the laity. This led to the arguments about its
content, noted by the liturgists. The majority of the laity are not conscious
of the Church's heartbeat as it can be heard in the Anaphora, which contains
all of the Church's prayers "in behalf of all and for all",
about the transfiguration of the world, and about the Kingdom of God.
The Anaphoras of the liturgies, along with the prayer of St Basil the
Great, in one sweep overwhelm the world's cosmic prayer, which contains
the thanksgiving and the petitions of individual Church members, with
the depth and strength of the grace-filled love of the Church, both by
the precision and the flexibility of dogmatic formulas. This corporate
prayer's hymn does not reach the ears and the consciousness of the faithful.
Many have lost the understanding of the sacrificial character of the Eucharist
and the knowledge of their responsible participation in the Anaphora's
offering, even though their offering of the prosphora with lists of names
of living and dead (the ancient diptychs) attests to that part of the
corporate Eucharistic act.[81] Many people in Church pray for their own
personal rather than the corporate needs during the Anaphora , thanking
God for their joys, bringing to Him their own needs and asking Him for
help in their own difficulties. The assembly of the faithful, to profound
regret, does not see itself of one mind and one heart before the Diskos,
upon which the whole Church and the whole world surrounds Christ, its
Head. An element of corporate and communal disintegration can be observed
in the people's relationship to the Eucharist and the Liturgy, which is
only magnified by the infrequent partaking of the Eucharist. This is a
common participation in the communal sin, a sin of the lack of love for
one's neighbor. The communal disintegration in practice can be felt in
the manner of participating in the Eucharist. At one time the celebrants
and the people partook together. Today the celebrants partake in the sanctuary
behind closed Royal doors and a drawn curtain. The sanctuary, at that
moment according to the liturgists, becomes Mount Sinai, from which the
laity are excluded. During the communion of the celebrants the choir sings
the Communion Hymn which in the ancient church was sung by the partaking
people.[82] For example, "Receive the Body of Christ, taste the fountain
of immortality". "Taste and see, for the Lord is good".
Later the Communion hymn varied according to the season and the feast.
Today it is "sung to maintain the pious attitude of those present
and to occupy their attention at that moment" (it being the communion
of the celebrants).[83] This explanation by a Russian liturgist is a testimony
to the breakdown of Eucharistic piety since in the Early Church it was
not necessary to occupy the faithful when they were standing before the
Eucharistic Christ. The frequent practice of preaching a sermon or the
choir's rendition of a "concert piece" or of verses the content
of which is far removed from the given moment when Christ reigns on His
throne and Christians are presumably participating in the Messianic kingdom,
is further testimony to this breakdown. Here is where Eucharistic silence
is most appropriate, during this "day without evening of Christ's
kingdom."
For many, the Liturgy has lost that meaning of the most significant and
central Divine service, that joy of the ecclesiastical community which
was preparing for it by participating in all services of the daily cycle.
For many, enchanted by the beauties of the service's Biblical imagery
and the poetry of the Church's great and inspired hymnographers, the Liturgy
is relegated to the second place, behind the All-night Vigil. The Liturgy
has become overgrown with extraneous additives B abridged Matins, intercession
services, services for the dead, which, in the minds of the faithful,
frequently act as a substitute for the sacrificial and merciful character
of the Eucharist. Communion has become infrequent. For many it is replaced
by the Antidoron.[84]
The faithful receive Communion once a year. Communion is closely linked
with a penitential exercise and the sacrament of Penance.[85] In this
a great spiritual truth is resolved. "Let a man examine himself,
and so eat of the bread and drink of the cup. For any one who eats and
drinks without discerning the body eats and drinks judgment upon himself."
(I Cor 11:28-29) The exclamation in "The Teaching of the
Twelve Apostles "if anyone is holy, let him approach, and if
he is not, let him repent" resounds in all liturgies. "Holy
things to the holy." Chrysostom, in his fervent desire that all of
his flock approach the sacred Mysteries as frequently as possible[86]
demands that Communion be "with a clear mind, a clear heart and a
blameless life,"[87] "with a great oneness of mind and a fervent
love[88] with trembling and in all purity".[89] On the day of his
regeneration and the sealing with the seal of the Holy Spirit, the Christian
is called to such a life, during which he would have the opportunity,
even with a profound consciousness of his sinfulness and unworthiness,
to approach the sacred Cup as often as possible "in the fear of God
and love" and participate in the prayers of the Holy Offering.
The Ancient Church protected the sanctity of the Eucharist and kept obvious
sinners from the holy cup for long periods and at times even until death.
Later the strict rules of the penitential discipline was relaxed as the
result of the general decline in the spiritual lives of Christians. The
emerging monasticism had a tremendous influence on the lives of the laity.
The liturgy was celebrated once or twice a week in the monasteries[90]
and the remaining time was spent in the preparation for the mystery and
for efforts to cleanse one's heart by zealous "sweat and works."
In monasteries, due to the needs of the intense spiritual life, the practice
of daily confession arose in two forms: one before the Elder, and a sacramental
one. This brought about the inseparable link between communion and confession,
which was unknown in the Early Church, which followed the rule that "the
individual conscience is the guiding rule (o kanon) for the reception
of the divine Mysteries."[91]
This new monastic practice was carried over to the laity,[92] with the
one difference that for a monk the effort for the preparation for communion
was a constant one but the laity began to come to communion more and more
infrequently, blaming their spiritual negligence and sinfulness which
would require special preparation forgetting the words of St Cyril of
Jerusalem addressed to illuminati : "Do not deprive yourselves of
communion; do not deprive yourselves of those holy and spiritual mysteries
because of your sinfulness."[93] The words of St John Cassian have
also been forgotten, who says: "We must not estrange ourselves from
the Lord's communion because we consider ourselves sinners. We must thirst
for him that much more in order to heal our soul and cleanse the spirit,
but with such humility of spirit and with faith, that although considering
ourselves unworthy to receive such grace, we would seek the healing of
our wounds. Otherwise we will receive unworthily even once a year, such
as some do who live in monasteries and who look upon the worthiness, sanctity
and efficaciousness of the heavenly mysteries in such a way that they
think that they can be received only by saints, and the righteous. But
it is better to think that these mysteries, through their grace, make
us pure and holy. They actually express a greater pride than humility
because when they receive them, they think themselves to be worthy. It
would be much better if we, with that same humility of the heart, by which
we believe and confess that we can never worthily approach the Holy Mysteries,
but would receive them each Sunday for the healing of our faults, rather
than believing with a vain heart that we, after a year's time, become
worthy to receive them."[94]
In the second half of the 11th century the Kievan Metropolitan
John II (H 1089) probably following the practice of Constantinople in
his "Rules of the holy Fathers for the penitent sons and daughters"
speaks about communion on great feasts and on all Sundays of Great Lent[95]
which add up to 22 days. It is apparent that the attempt to introduce
or to preserve the practice of frequent reception was extremely difficult.[96]
In the 15th century Symeon of Salonika, following the practice
of the Ancient Church recommends approaching the holy Cup "if possible,
every Sunday."[97] Nonetheless, there was a gradual introduction
of the practice of a single reception each year, preceded by intensive
fasting and prayer. Many Church members fail to carry out even this minimal
requirement and do not receive Communion for several years. Ecclesiastical
authorities in Byzantium as well as in Russia frequently pointed to this
sad phenomenon and attempted to remedy it with measures which unfortunately
were not always prudent nor spiritually edifying especially when combined
with other motives. We will not dwell on the spiritually-repulsive legislative
and administrative measures implemented in Russia during the 18th
and 19th centuries which compelled every Orthodox individual
to confess and receive Communion annually (register of penitents, fines
and punishments). The Mysteries were the government's weapons in its struggle
against the Dissenters. It is only natural that Article 20 of the "Statute
on the deterrence and prevention of criminal acts" had such a negative
meaning which only hardened the hearts against the Church and resulted
in a monumentally blasphemous attitude towards the Church's Mysteries.[98]
Infrequent reception is found not only in the Russian Church but in other
parts of the Universal Church for example, in the Balkans. Here, due to
the absence of communicants, one can observe a shortening or an almost
imperceptible end of the Liturgy. As far as the faithful are concerned,
the Liturgy ends with the communion of the celebrants, after which comes
the sermon, the distribution of the Antidoron and the veneration of the
cross. The culminating part of the Liturgy passes by unnoticed by the
people. There is no summons to the Bridal Feast of the Lamb and if there
is a call then, as far as the majority of the faithful, it passes as a
"voice crying in the wilderness."
To be sure, the souls abiding in a vital spiritual life, will feel a thirst
and hunger for the Eucharist. "As a doe thirsts for the stream so
is my soul anxious for Thee, O Lord." Unfortunately the practice
of infrequent Communion is viewed by many as if it is on the same level
as a Canon. " An unhealthy suspicion and fear has developed which
at times goes too far and not infrequently keeps the Church members away
from Communion for years at a time", (Metropolitan Sergii). Sad examples
are known about priests who discourage frequent Communion or do not permit
people to approach the Cup on the "brightest night" of Pascha,
although in some places this can be explained by a zeal for worthy participation
and a struggle against a careless attitude towards the Mystery, expressed
in a superficial desire to fulfill one's "obligation" quickly
during the Paschal night.
However, within the Orthodox Church some movements have been observed
leading towards a revival of the Church's corporate Eucharistic life,
similar to the strong Liturgical movement in the West which is constantly
growing and spreading and which aims to return the Mass to its corporate
character by encouraging the participation of the whole community.[99]
Communion is becoming more frequent. This is especially evident in Soviet
Russia where life's special circumstances has resulted in a more intense
spirituality among the believes which excludes that indifference which
has been condemned by the Angel in his message to the Church in Laodicaea
(Revel. 3:15-16). Of special interest are the views and practices of the
late professor, Fr.N.N. Nalimov, of the St Petersburg Theological Academy,[100]
who called his spiritual children to a more frequent reception and replaced
confession before each reception with a weekly spiritual discussion which
gave him an opportunity to observe his spiritual children and to give
them direction.
In 1930 the Moscow Patriarchal Synod received a petition from a laywoman,
L. E. Ivanova and "a group of members of the Christian community"
"concerning the introduction of serving the Presanctified liturgy
during the whole of Great Lent except for the days when a complete liturgy
is prescribed, thus enabling the faithful to receive Communion daily."
The petition was accompanied with an "Apology for the daily and regular
reception of the Holy Mysteries as a commandment of Christ the Savior."
Metropolitan Sergii was critical of some parts of the Apology. After hearing
his report, the Patriarchal Synod, by their resolution of 13 May 1931,
No 85, rejected Ivanova's petition. The argument for the need for daily
Communion was rejected as not being essential for the spiritual benefits
of the communicants and not being in conformance with the age-old practice
of the Church." However, "the desire respecting the possibility
of frequent Communion by Orthodox Christians and for the more faithful
of them Communion every Sunday, is deemed acceptable".[101]
In his response Metropolitan Sergii maintained a proper position that
a mechanical introduction of daily communion without accompanying spiritual
preparation would create a spiritual danger for the laity "of a careless
and inattentive approach to the Holy Mysteries." Frequent Communion
is closely connected with a general spiritual growth of Church members.
The practices of Fr. Nalimov, the petition of Ivanova and other examples
of Eucharistic hunger in the Russian and in other churches is indicative
of an unquestionable Eucharistic renaissance in the Orthodox Church. and
the mind is unwittingly directed towards the practice of the Ancient Church,
to the radiantly expressed communal character of her liturgy which was
tarnished by the human carelessness towards the great grace-filled gifts
and the joy which was given to believers in Christ in the Upper Room at
the Mystical Supper, and at the great day of Pentecost, and on the weakening
of the consciousness of responsibility on the part of all Church members
for participation in the Eucharistic offering and corporate communion,
the responsibility for the fate of the Church and for the coming of God's
kingdom in the world. The pointed reminder of St John Chrysostom is recalled
"that we should not depend entirely upon the priests but all of us
should be concerned for the whole Church as the Body common to all of
us. This will serve for our greater conformation and will lead us towards
a greater disposition for good works. One must live in the Church as if
in one house. Since it constitutes one body, everyone must be well disposed
towards each other. . .Our real situation is worthy of tears. We have
separated ourselves so far from each other that it is difficult to picture
ourselves as one body."[101]
As a recipient of the mystery of Chrismation, one must make a powerful
effort to realize of one's obligation to participate corporally in the
Liturgy, both in the offering and in Communion. This will become the way
which will create a spiritual rejuvenation. It will bring about a grace-filled
inspiration for the Direction taken by Christians looking to the Deification
of life and culture and the revelation of God's Kingdom in this world.
This would be the way of healing the wounds of social evil and of sin.
This realization and the Eucharistic prayer's spiritual experience will
provide an opportunity to return to those particularities of the ancient
Liturgy in a natural, corporal voice of the Holy Church. These things
were obscured in the consciousness of Christians because of their spiritual
negligence but they were preserved in the Church's service books. Such
a return would by no means be a repudiation of that great spiritual treasure
which accumulated in the Church as the fruit of centuries of prayerful
inspiration and effort. To reject this would be a blasphemy against the
Holy Spirit who lives and acts in the Church and beautifies Her with His
gifts.
The
burning words of the Eucharistic prayers illumine the way as if a guiding
star. The words of St Basil's Anaphora resounds like heavenly music, which
regrettably, does not reach the consciousness of the laity.
"And
unite all of us to one another who become partakers of the one Bread and
Cup in the communion of the Holy Spirit. . . Receive us all into Thy Kingdom,
showing us to be the sons of light and sons of the day. Grant us Thy peace
and Thy love O Lord our God. . .And grant that with one mouth and one
heart we may praise Thine all-honorable and majestic name, of the Father,
and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit".
NOTES
1.
See e.g. Lietzmann H. Messe und Herrenmahl. (Bonn, 1926). Karabinov,
I. Eucharistic Prayer., (SPB 1908). Gavin, F. The Jewish Antecedent
of the Christian Sacraments. (London, 1928), pp, 60-97.
2.
The Sacred Eucharist B ties of love. St John Chrysostom. Sermon on
Acts XI
3.
See the interesting essays of H. J. Gibbins. "The Problem of the
Liturgical Section of the Didache," Journal of Theological Studies,
vol 36 (Oct. 1835) pp 373-386; Middleton, R. D. "The Eucharistic
Prayer of the Didache", ibid (July), pp 259-267.
4.
Library of Christian Classics, V, one.
5.
See Petrovsky, A. "The ancient act of the offering of gifts for the
Eucharistic Mystery and the order of the Prothesis," Khrianskoye
Chtenie, 1904, v. CCXVII, part I, pp. 406ff
6.
Irenaeus of Lyons, Contra Haer, 1. 4. c. XVIII
7.
Justin Martyr, First Apology, '67, Library of Christian Classics
v. One, p.287
8.
De Oratione
9.
The priest kisses the covered disk and chalice, and the altar table.
10.
I Cor 14:16. Rites of early liturgies. Justin. Collections of ancient
liturgies, V, I p. 40. St. Dionysius of Alexandria from a letter to Sixtus
bishop of Rome. Eusebius, Church History, book VII, 9. Collection
p. 69, etc.
11.
St Ignatius to Smyrnaeans, Library of Christian Classics, v. 1,
p 115.
12.
"We must thank. . .we remember. . . we repeat. . . we implore. .
.we remember. . . we repeat." The Five Sermons on the Mysteries,
Works, SPB 1913, pp 248-249.
13.
Commentary on II Corinthians, Sermon 18:3. Russian collection Vol
X, book 2. SPB 1904, pp 632-633.
14. Collection of Ancient Liturgies, SPB 1875 pp 26-37. Brightman
pp 87-96. cf Syrian Liturgy of St Basil the Great, ibid, pp 89-108. Mozarabic,
pp 140-149.
15.
See: Acts of St Perpetua. Her dream.
16.
In the Armenian Liturgy the Deacon exclaims: "Kiss each other with
the holy kiss and those of you who cannot receive these sacred Mysteries,
depart beyond the doors." Cf the exclamation in the Coptic Liturgy
of St Cyril of Alexandria: "Let those who cannot partake, depart."
17.
Skaballanovich, Typikon Commentary, V. I, Kiev, 1910, p. 164
18.
Works, edition 3, part 6. Sergiev Posad 1892, p. 201
19.
Skaballanovich, op. cit. p. 165
20.
Collection of Early Liturgies, v. I, pp 40, 42.
21.
E.g. Serapion's Communion. Eusebius's, Church History, book
VI, ch. XLIV. Collection of Ancient Liturgies, v. I, p. 68
22.
E.g. Almazov, Mystery of Confession in the Orthodox Eastern Church,
Odessa, 1894, V. II, pp 116-123.
23.
See Dmitrievsky, I. Historical, Dogmatic and Sacramental Analysis of
the Liturgy, Moscow 1823, pp 244-245, note A.
24.
"Be careful then, to observe a single Eucharist. For here is one
flesh of our Lord, Jesus Christ, and one cup of his blood that makes us
one, and one altar, just as there is one bishop along with the presbytery
and the deacons. . " St Ignatius, To the Philadelphians, L.C.C.
vol, pg. 108
25.
I. Pokrovsky, Matrimonial Prayers and Blessings in the Early Church
(1st to 10th centuries). Collection of essays in
honor of the 100th jubilee of the Moscow Spiritual Academy,
1913. II. especially pp 577-592.
26.
Mansvetov, Church Ustav, Moscow 1855, pg. 240.
27.
Nikodim Milash, Canons of the Orthodox Church with Commentaries.
SPB 1911, v, pg 69.
28.
St Prockus, Sermon on the Heritage of the Divine Liturgy, Collection
of Ancient Liturgies, v. 2 pg 237.
29.
A. Golubtsov. Cathedral Ordinals and Particularities of Services According
to Them. Moscow 1907 pg 179 note 1.
30.
The attribution of all such rules to St Theodore Studite is questionable.
N. Grossau, St Theodore Studite, His Times, Life and Works, Kiev
1907 pp 296-299.
6) He who through ignorance does not partake of
communion. He who for more than 40 days, without a
penance, remains without Communion, must show his
reason and if it happens that he does this through
negligence, he must be subject to penance for 40 days.
41) He who does not receive Communion during the
Liturgy must indicate his reason and if he fails to
do so,
he must fast until evening and make 50 prostrations.
62) A monastic or a layman who is not under penance
and through his own negligence does not come to
Communion for forty days must be excommunicated
from the Church for one year .
Works
of our Father and Confessor St Theodore Studite,
Russian translation, SPB 1908, v. II pp 848, 850, 852.
31.
Greek, mystikos, Syr. geontho
32.
See e.g. Brightman, 520, note 9
33.
Chapter 6 Novella 137 of Justinian, 26 March 565. Greek text in Mommsen's
Corpus Juris Civilis, III pp 695-699, 1896. Cf Brightman, Liturgies
Eastern and Western, Oxford 1896, pg 533: 19-23: "That the souls
of the listeners would come from this to greater piety, Divine praise
and blessing." The Novella exists in two redactions: 1) the original
text is in Mommsen. 2) Combined text of Novella 123 (1 May 546) and 137
(26 May 565) which includes Novella 137 in parts within Novella 123. P.L.
72, 1019-103.
34.
Direction for the reading mystikos in Barberini's (8th-9th centuries)
and Porfirii's (8th-9th) Euchologions. Archpriest M. N. Orlov,
Liturgy of St Basil the Great, SPB 1909.
35.
It is found in the 8th-9th centuries. see Barberini's Euchologion,
ibid, pg 302. Cf pp 322-381
36.
Theodore Bishop of Andida (11th century. Krasnosel'tsev, N.F.
On the Ancient Liturgical Commentaries, Odessa 1894, pp 11-13).
Brief Analysis of the Mysteries and Rites of the Divine Liturgies,
Compiled at the Request of the God-loving Basil, bishop of Fitia (trans.
by Krasnosel'tsev. Prav. Sobesednik 1884, ch I, pg 413. Detailed redaction
(following 10th century) by Krasnosel'tsev, Consecutive
Exposition of Divine Services and Rites of St German, Patriarch of Constantinople
(715-732) Writings of the Holy Fathers and Teachers of the Church Concerning
Explanations of the Divine Services, V. I SPB 1855, pg 425.
37.
First found in Ordo Romanus II. Mabillon. Museum Italicum, II, pg 48
38.
Golubtsov, A., The Reasons and
Times of the Replacement of Audible Reading of Liturgical Prayers by Secret
Readings.
39.
Sermon on the Tradition of the Divine Liturgy, Collected works,
v. 2, pp 23-58.
40.
English translation, Christian Worship. Its Origin and Evolution, 5th
ed. London 1927 pp 117-118.
41.
Archim. (Bishop) Gavriil, Liturgics Manual, Tver, 1886, pg 104.
It is not clear what to do with the deacons who receive Communion but
do not hear the prayers.
42.
For example: The Fearful Offering, (Works, vol I, pg 462., vol V, pg 484).
Fearful and mysterious, vol. VI, pg 384. Fearful and awesome, vol
X, pg 240. The Eucharist - most fearful mystery, vol I, pg 417; Fearful
and redemptive, vol VII, pg 289. Other examples in Edmund Bishop, Appendix
to Texts and Studies, vol VIII, No 1, pp 94-95, note 2.
43.
"Truly, during this sacred hour the heart must be fully directed
towards God." Works, pg 247.
44.
"If you read the prayers in a foreign tongue, then the ordinary person
is unable to respond with his Amen; not having heard the words 'unto ages
of ages,' he will not say Amen." Sermon 35 on I Cor., Works
SPB 1904, vol. X book I, pg 358.
45.
Referred to occasionally as the Book of Mysteries by Eastern Syrian
writers. Commentary of Theodore of Mopsuestia on the Lord's Prayer
and on the Sacraments of Baptism and the Eucharist by A. Mingana,
Woodbroke Studies, vol. VI, Cambridge 1933, English translation pp. 70-123.
46.
Ibid, p. 99.
47.
Ibid, p. 102.
48.
Ibid pg 105.
49.
Texts and Studies, vol VIII, N. 1. Cambridge 1909, pp 1-45. About
the authorship of Narsai see ibid, R.H. Connolly, pp XII-XLI and F.C.
Burkitt. "The MSS of Narsai on the mysteries," Journal of
Theological Studies, 1928, pg 269ff.
50.
Collection of Ancient Liturgies, v. 4, pp 12-33
51.
Cf: "Woe is me, woe is me. . ."(Isaiah 6:5) in the Liturgy
of Addai and Mari, 4th ed., pg 21.
52.
Texts and Studies, VII, No 1, pg 7.
53.
Ibid. pg 10. Cf: the deacon's exclamation in the Syrian Liturgy of St
James, "Let us stand with fear and trembling... We stand at a fearful
and awesome place and abide with the Cherubim and the Seraphim."
Collection, v. II, pg 26
54.
Cf: Commentary of Theodore of Mopsuestia, Woodbrooke Studies,
pp 93, 100.
55.
Beraza, "directly."
56.
Texts, pg 12.
57.
Ibid, pg 13.
58.
Ibid pg 18
59.
Ibid pg 22. Cf: the deacon's exclamation in the Syrian Liturgy of St James
before the invocation: "How fearful is the present hour. How awesome,
my beloved, is that time during which the living and holy Spirit comes
from the heavenly heights. Watch with fear and trembling." In the
catholicon following the Anaphora: "Here is the time of fear, here
is the hour of trembling. Those on high stand in fear and serve with trembling;
the son of light encompasses the awesomeness..Tremble, you servants of
the Church who perform the Divine act of the living fire...Deacons, stand
with trembling." Collection, v. 2, pp 30,38.
60.
"Letter to Presbyter Thomas about the ancient Syrian liturgy,"
Collection, v. 3, pp 113-114
61.
The words of institution in the Anaphora published by Brightman were taken
from Rev. A.J. Maclean's fragments found in Kurdistan. They existed at
the time of Narsai and apparently were excluded later. Lietzmann, Die
Messe und Herrenmahl, pg 33.
62.
E.g. the book on ecclesiastical hierarchy. Writings of the Holy Fathers
and Church teachers concerning the interpretation of Orthodox Divine services,
vol. I, SPB 1855, pp 9-246 (with the interpretation of George Pachimer
(1240-1310) and notes by Maximus the Confessor).
63.
For example in Edessa and neighboring territory (Wescott). The first one
to cite the Corpus was Severus of Antioch in 513.
64.
For example the Syrian Anaphora with the name of St Dionysius Areopagite.
65.
See e.g. Bolotov, V.V., Lectures on the history of the ancient Church,
vol IV SPB 1918, pg 376.
66.
See for more detail in Edmund Bishop, Appendix to the Texts and Studies
Viii. No 1, pg 112.
67.
[I have taken this text from Pseudo-Dionysius in the Library of
Western Spirituality, Paulist Press, 1987, pg. 213, 429B, translator.]
68.
Works, vol. 1, pg 72
69.
Ibid pg. 109
70.
It is interesting that some texts of the Greek liturgy of St James, the
prayer "at the entry of the Holy Gifts" is attributed to Dionysius
Areopagite, "Having come to your fearful dais, Lord, we are in awe
as we approach your sacred table and are standing near your fearful Throne,
we tremble and shake with our members, as we offer the unapproachable
offering. . .because of which we stand in fear and trembling."
71.
Woodbrooke Studies, pg 100
72.
Ibid, pp 90-91
73.
Ibid., pg 93
74.
Homily XXI (c) Texts and Studies, pg 57
75.
Ibid, pg 149
76.
According to S. Epiphanov, these are known under the name of St. Maximus
the Confessor.
If
John Skithopolis can be identified with John III Scholasticus , Patriarch
of Constantinople (565-577), (according to I. Sokolov, in the Orthodox
Theological Encyclopedia, vol. VII, col. I,) then the Cherubicon was introduced
at that time and if its composition can be attributed to him (according
to Bishop Porfirii Uspensky), then the influence of the Corpus becomes
self-evident.
77.
Cf. "The deacons bring out this offering or the symbol of offering,
which they place upon the awesome altar. . .We must think about Christ,
being conscious of his suffering.". . "We must think that the
deacons, carrying the Eucharistic bread for the offering, represent the
image of the invisible powers. . .When they place the bread upon the holy
altar, we think of Him, as having been placed in the tomb after the passions.
This is why the deacons, spreading the covers upon the altar, symbolize
by them the burial cloth." Theodore, Woodbrooke Studies, pp
85, 86. Cf Narsai, "We will look upon Jesus, being led to his death
for us." The placing of the Gifts upon the altar is the symbol of
burial. The deacons represent the angels who are guarding the awesome
mystery of the King of kings. Texts and Studies, pp 3-4, 55-56.
Cf. the hymn "Let all mortal flesh keep silent and in fear and trembling
stand. . .", which was introduced probably more or less at the same
time with the Cherubicon hymn (according to Kedrin, in 573) and the "Now
the heavenly powers" (in 615-620).
See
Eutychius of Constantinople (H582) for an incorrect understanding of the
Great Entrance in Sermon on Easter and Eucharist, Collection, v. 4, pg
65.
78.
St German of Constantinople. "Systematic explanation of Church services
and rites," Writings of the Holy Fathers and Teachers of the Church,
vol. I pg 400
79.
Ibid, pg 402
80.
For example, "In some places the priests have a custom to recite
the prayers of the Holy Offering aloud, thus the children, who hear them
often, could know them by heart." Miracle which took place with the
children at Apamea, who pronounced the prayers as they played. Spiritual
Pasture,, chapter 196, Russian translation by S.T. Lavrov, 1896, pg
242; cf. a Brother who knew the rite of the Holy Offering. . The Elder
decreed a rule that no one who was not ordained could learn the words
of the Holy Offering, chapter 25. About one of the brothers of the Chuzin
monastery, ibid. pp 30-31
81.
Here it must be noted with regret about the laity's understanding of the
Prosthesis and its sacrificial and merciful character. The presence of
any laity in the Church during the Prosthesis is infrequent and if they
are there, they are attentive to the reading of the Hours. On Athos, during
the Hours, a small bell is sounded at the appropriate moment and the monks
begin reciting memorials and Diptychs, their own and the monastery's.
82.
For example, the Liturgy of the Apostolic Constitutions , Psalm
33. Collection of the ancient liturgies, vol. I, pg 134; other hymns,
ibid., See Skaballanovich for more detail op.cit. Pp49-50. Orthodox
Theological Encyclopedia, vol. X, cols 16-18.
83.
For example, Bishop Vissarion, Explanation of the Divine Liturgy. 4th
edition SPB 1895, pg. 263
84.
First noted in a work of the 11th century, "Commentary
on the Liturgy" by St German of Constantinople. A. Petrovsky, Orthodox
Theological Encyclopedia, vol I, column 796
85.
This practice is found in the decree of a council in Cyprus (1620) whereby
the priest must inquire of those who come to the Chalice, whether they
confessed their sins and to which spiritual father. Theological Herald,
l905, April, pg. 754, note 1.
86.
Works, vol XII, book I, pg 54
87.
Ibid, pg 153
88.
Vol VI, pg 308.
89.
Vol VI pg 309.
90.
Skaballonovich, Tolkovyi Typikon, First part, pp 210-211, 222,
227, 242. Daily in the Apollos Monastery. Ibid. pg 22.
91.
"How and by what means can one commune in the absence of a priest,"
Suvorov, N. On the question of secret confession, 2 edition Moscow,
1906, pg. 3
92.
S. Smirnov, "Confession and repentance in ancient monasteries of
the East," Theological Herald, 1905 April, pp 746-754.
93.
5 mystagogical sermons , 23.
Works 1913, pg 252
94.
Works of St John Cassian the Roman.. 2nd edition, Moscow, 1892,
pg 605
95.
Cf The practice of certain princes ,Golubinsky. History of the Russian
Church, vol I ch II, Moscow 1904, pg 434 note1.
96.
See A. Dobroklonsky, Manual for the History of the Russian Church,
vol I, 2nd edition. Ryazan 1899, pg 98
97.
"Discussion on divine services and Church Mysteries," Writings
of the Holy Fathers and Church Teachers, v. II SPB 1856, pg 519.
98.
Almazov, Sacrament of Confession, v. I, pp 370-397
99.
Cf. A. Zhuranovsky, "The Liturgical canon today and in the past,"
Khristianskaya Mysl, Kiev, 1917. September-October, pp 3-26; November-December,
pp 10-34; and I. Gumilevsky, "Reform or creativity," Theological
Herald, 1917, v. II, pp 54-74
100.
Archimandrite Cassian (S.S.Bezobrazov) Vozrozhdenie, No 18, 1926.
"Three Images." Fr. Nalimov's theses are published in Put, No 18 (1929) pp 79-87. Cf Fr S. Bulgakov's article, "On the question
of penitential and Eucharistic discipline," Put, No 19, pp
70-78.
101.
Herald of the Moscow Patriarchate, Moscow, 1931
102.
Works, v. X, book 2, pg 663
Translation
Copyright © 1999 by Alvian N. Smirensky
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