Adventures in the Unseen: My Adventures in Africa
Adventures in the Unseen: The Silent Witness
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Wherever
missionaries have penetrated, they have had an impact on the cultures
of the peoples among whom they have sought to evangelize. On rare and
isolated occasions the impact has been negative. But this has been wholly
exceptional. Whenever Christianity has been introduced to an area where
it did not exist before, it has never failed to bring justice and civilization
in its train. Through missionary activity, whole ethnic groups in widely
separated areas of the world have been raised up from barbarism.
One hears a great deal these days about "church planting,"
often in the missionary context. In a country such as the former Soviet
Union, which is predominantly Orthodox, the rationale of church planting
is obvious. In pursuance of its policy of state sponsored atheism, the
communist government built whole new cities without a single church. In
such communities, new churches need to be planted as a matter of high
priority to cater to the spiritual needs of the people. The believers
are there; clergy are available (to a greater or lesser degree); a church
must be built and equipped and a new parish made functional. When this
happens, a church has been "planted."
On the mission field, at least in the earlier stages, "church
planting" inevitably takes a different form. There is no body of
existing believers crying out for a church to meet their spiritual needs.
Indeed, it is often the case that there are no believers at all. Such
faithful as do exist will probably be scattered and may well be poorly
instructed and poorly nurtured. Yet even believers such as these need
churches. In emergency or exceptional circumstances, the Divine Liturgy
can be celebrated out of doors but this is neither usual nor generally
desirable. Without church buildings there can be no Divine Liturgy; and
without the Liturgy regularly available to him, the convert out of heathendom
can have no hope of standing and maturing in his faith.
MISSIONS AND CULTURE
Each nation and people has its respective culture. Culture is a
word that is not particularly easy to define. According to one dictionary
definition, culture is "the sum total of a nation's aesthetic and
intellectual achievements." One of my students in Kenya has coined
another definition: "the patterned way in which people do things
together." For a number of reasons, the question of missions and
culture is of prime importance.
When cultures, particularly widely differing ones, impact upon
one another, both are bound to be affected. In some instances, the consequences
have been traumatic and even devastating. One thinks, for example, of
the impact of "white civilization" over wide areas of Africa.
Christianity is itself a culture. Unlike other cultures, Christianity
(in its authentic form) is totally devoid of negative features. There
have been secularist anthropologists who have protested that missionary
activity is "harmful to the culture of unsophisticated peoples."
In some instances, these anthropologists are right. Missionaries, however,
need not be intimidated by pseudo-science. Certain "cultures"
are vile and it is no loss if they perish. When the Spanish conquistadores
(who were by no means a gentle people themselves) entered Mexico, they
were aghast at what they found. The inhabitants — Aztec Amerindians —
had a "culture" based on human sacrifice. The number of victims
ran into thousands every year. The world can do without this kind of culture.
Nothing is more deeply entwined with a peoples' culture than their
religious beliefs to which they have adhered from time immemorial. The
indigenous religion of millions of Africans is fear-inspiring spiritism.
The average African lives out his life under the continuous scrutiny (so
he believes) of ancestral spirits. These spirits, moreover, have the power
to deal out severe punishments upon those who might incur their displeasure.
Throughout the length and breadth of tropical Africa, the dread of spirits
is very real and all-pervasive. No one among them would not be blessed
by finding emancipation from the cult of spirits by conversion to the
faith of the One who gave the gracious invitation, "Come unto Me
all you who labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest."
And it is only deep and earnest conversion to Christ that will give freedom
from the tormenting bondage of the fear of ancestral spirits.
One obviously accepts that there are aspects of many cultures that
are good and should by all means be preserved. The pioneer Protestant
missionary to New Guinea, James Chalmers, was martyred and cannibalized
in April 1901. Known as "the Livingston of New Guinea" he was
endowed with a rich fund of missionary wisdom. "The shortest way
to a New Guinean's heart," Chalmers wrote, "is through his tobacco
pipe." By modern standards, the observation is startling. All that
can be said is that in Chalmers's day, it was not known that tobacco was
harmful to health. Chalmers also held the sane and sensible belief that
primitive tribal people should not be required to adopt western clothing.
"To swathe their limbs in European clothing," he wrote, .. spoils
them, deteriorates them and I fear, hurries them to a premature death
... Retain native customs as much as possible — only those which are very
objectionable should be forbidden." It is noteworthy that Chalmers
did not forbid to his converts things he found "objectionable"
but forbade only those things which were very objectionable. It is an
interesting commentary on the evolution of social habits that with the
exception of proudly traditionalist Greeks and Scots, there is now probably
no community of men on earth who' would not want "to swathe their
limbs in European clothing."
CONVERSION AND CULTURE
For an unbeliever, conversion to Christ involves the most radical
change. The convert takes himself out from under the allegiance of one
Master and places himself instead under the headship of a very different
one. If, as the Apostle John tells us, the whole world is in the grip
of the Evil One, conversion, to use a military analogy, is nothing less
than desertion to the enemy. The convert's entire mental and spiritual
frame of reference must be dismantled and replaced. The first of Christ's
many gifts to the new convert is a sense of sin.
"If you love Me," our Lord declared, "You will keep
My commandments" (John 14:15). The convert's whole way of life must
be brought into obedience and submission to Christ. The converted and
chrismated man has the Spirit within him and knows (or certainly should
know) the difference between right and wrong. This knowledge will impact
profoundly on his lifestyle. Conversion involves repentance for past sin;
with this in mind, the convert should always have before him the exhortation
of the Forerunner: "Therefore bear fruits worthy of repentance"
(John 3:8).
Conversion implies a transfer from one community to another. All
of us have modes of earning our livelihoods, places we frequent, friends
with whom we consort and pastimes we enjoy. Each of these will come under
the scrutiny of the conscience of the new convert. The young convert who
is a slave to fornication or other immorality will turn from it; the convert
employed in a questionable type of business will resign. There was for
example, a croupier in a casino who was converted. For a short time he
continued in this work, but became ever-more deeply convicted in his conscience
that the work he was doing was displeasing to God. Finally, a day came
when he told a group of startled gamblers at the roulette wheel, "God
doesn't want me here." There and then he walked out of the casino
and never returned. Another young man was addicted to watching pornographic
videos. Upon conversion, this unsavory vice was immediately discontinued.
No step in a man's life can be more radical than conversion. A newly-converted
soldier termed it "right--about turn", or in motoring language,
a U-turn. For the new convert, the world and its values will be replaced
and superseded by Christ and the values of Christ, which are "not
of this world." For the Christian, the unregenerate world is a source
of contamination. This was acknowledged at the very birth of the Church
when the Apostle Peter exhorted his congregation to "Save yourself
from this crooked generation" (Acts 2:40).
Nothing is more radical than conversion. For most people, conversion
implies a complete break with the past. When a person's previous religious
affiliation was intermingled (as it often is) with his culture, the break
is all the more traumatic. A breach with any lifelong commitment to a
system of beliefs always involves pain. During the course of a lifetime
the convert to Christianity has formed habits of thought and life and
innumerable attachments arising from his former beliefs. The severing
of these is accompanied with a pain akin to the physical pain of dislocation
and the wrenching asunder of nerves and fibers. In addition to its private
aspect, conversion will be attended to a greater or lesser degree with
social consequences. These may range from something as comparatively innocuous
as the disapproval of a spouse or other family member to a sudden knife
thrust in the back at the hands of a Muslim fanatic.
The very radical nature of conversion is apostrophized in the New
Testament in such terms as being born again (John 3:3) and resurrection
from the dead (Eph 5:14). It was our Lord who warned the convert that
turning to Him could involve the loss of family and possessions. A distressing
example of the appalling persecution that can be meted out to a convert
from Islam was reported in the London "Times" (July 6, 1996).
A Kuwaiti citizen, Mr. Robert Hussein, converted to Christianity, which
in Kuwait is a criminal offence. In an Islamic court appearance lasting
less than a minute, Mr. Hussein was declared an official apostate from
Islam. He was not allowed to speak, was declared automatically divorced
from his wife, legally forbidden to see his children and stripped of his
civil rights. He was deprived of his passport. From their pulpits, Muslim
preachers issued death threats against Mr. Hussein. It is a matter for
sadness rather than surprise that the unfortunate man cracked under this
inhuman persecution and reverted to Islam.
THE BIBLE AND CULTURE
Much, if not most, biblical teaching is given through the context
of the cultures of the people. What our Lord had to say was always in
the highest degree culturally intelligible to His hearers. In His parables
He spoke of things they knew and understood: sheep and goats; wheat and
tares; a lost coin; a lost sheep; a lost son. His imagery could be understood
by a child: the appearance of the sky, a treasure hidden in a field, a
king going to war, and much else of the same genre. Never was a man closer
to the life and culture of his own people than our Lord. A careful reading
of the New Testament enables the student to build up an authentic and
remarkable picture of our Lord in His domestic and cultural setting. For
example, the reaction of the average reader confronted with a list of
questions such as those given below would probably be: "We are not
told; how can anyone know?" Given the appropriate references to look
up, however, it is surprising what can be found out. It is true that in
parables Jesus was not necessarily referring to His own home and family,
but it is safe to assume that he talked about the kind of people, the
kind of home and the kind of work with which he was familiar. Here are
some specimen questions with the references from which the answers can
be found:
1. Was the family of Jesus rich or poor? How do you know? (Mark
2:21; Matt 10:29); Lk 12:6).
2. What work did Jesus watch His mother doing? (Mk 2:21; Matt 6:30;
Lk 11:11,12; Lk 15:8; Lk 17:35.
3. What work did Jesus Himself do? What items might He have made?
(Mk 6:3; Matt 7:5; Matt 11:29,30).
4. What books did Jesus read? ( Matt 12:3:7; 15:7?9; Mk 14:26:
Lk 4:16,17).
5. What was probably the first word Mary taught Jesus to say? (Mk
14:36). (This list could be considerably extended).
While our Lord drew deeply from the culture into which He had been
born and nurtured in His own recorded sayings and teachings, it is undoubtedly
true to say that the entire New Testament is an essentially Hebraic document.
From beginning to end it is permeated with the letter and spirit of the
Hebrew Scriptures, from which there are approximately 2000 quotations
and references.
Other influences have made their imprint on the New Testament and
the Church. There is little doubt that the Beloved Disciple was inspired
in the writing of his Gospel by the Alexandrian sage Philo. Moreover the
Logos-mysticism of St John also has roots in Heraclitus and Plato. The
logos as a personification of the power and wisdom Of God is a concept
deeply rooted in Greek philosophy. Yet this did not inhibit the Apostle
from identifying the logos with our Lord in both His pre?incarnate and
incarnate natures. Both Saints Luke and Paul were familiar with Hellenic
culture. Acts 17:28 comprises a conflation of quotes from Aratus and Cleanthes
while other quotations from Greek authors are found in Titus 1:12( Epimenides)
and 1 Cor 15:33 (Menander). It also seems probable that Pauline theology
was influenced at least to some extent by Platonism. In other words, Christian
philosophy owes a debt to Hellenism. The Anglican scholar Dr W.R.Inge
rightly asserted that the Christian Church was the last great creative
achievement of classical culture. A major personality of the early Church,
Justin the Philosopher ("Justin Martyr") (who was martyred AD
166) declared, "We teach the same as the Greeks. Justin also said,
"The teachings of Plato are not alien to those of Christ; and the
same is true of the Stoics. Heraclitus and Socrates lived in accordance
with the divine Logos and should be reckoned as Christians." The
Hellenistic combination of Platonic metaphysics with Stoic ethics is still
the dominant type of Christian religious philosophy. In other words, Christian
Philosophy (as opposed to theology) is indebted to the ancient Greek thinkers
and philosophers. This is not to suggest, however, that anyone will ever
save his soul through Greek or any other species of philosophy.
THE NATURE OF CONVERSION
The nature of conversion has been much discussed. As I have already
noted, a convert is a person who, having formerly held one set of beliefs
or values is persuaded to adopt other beliefs or values; these may be
radically different from those he held formerly.
Conversion, and especially religious conversion, never occurs,
as it were, in a vacuum. Protestant evangelism tends to lay stress on
what has been called "crisis conversion". In other words, conversion
is a crisis event in the life of the Person concerned. It can be, and
often is, a very real and meaningful experience. "Crisis conversions"
often occur within the context of "crusades" or other large
evangelistic meetings. An "evangelist" who is skilled in this
type of work delivers an impassioned address. Usually he is supported
by a talented soloist who sings heart-rending "gospel songs".
There will be a well-rehearsed choir. The whole purpose of the proceedings
is to play upon the emotions of those present. The evangelist's address
ends with an "appeal" to those who wish to make a decision for
Christ to come to the front. They are then led off to be "counseled."
Of course, the archetypal evangelist of our generation is Billy Graham,
who is credibly reported to have addressed far more people than any other
man in history.
When Billy Graham conducts his "crusades" in the United
States, as he delivers his closing appeal to those who wish to "accept
Christ" to come forward, the choir sing a hymn titled "Just
as I am":
Just
as I am without one plea
But
that They blood was shed for me
And
that Thou bid's me come to Thee,
O
Lamb of God, I come, I come.
In recent years when Dr. Graham has preached in the United Kingdom,
the singing of this hymn is omitted. This is because there were many complaints
(surely well founded) that it is emotionally manipulative.
In the environment of great evangelistic meetings the appeal to
the emotions is powerful and for many, irresistible. It is inevitable
that the Orthodox Church views "mass evangelism" with disfavor.
True conversion is something far more profound than an emotional response.
I would not wish to suggest that the Holy Spirit does not sometimes
use Protestant evangelists. It is no doubt better to be a half-baked Christian
than not to be one at all. A soul can be saved in the twinkling of an
eye. God is merciful and a cry of broken repentance uttered in despair
moments before death will be received, but it is far from ideal. Fear
of imminent death is not a good basis for repentance. To make a decision
for Christ when in an emotionally overwrought state of mind is also less
than satisfactory. Dr. Graham and other evangelists have been obliged
to admit with sadness that fully 90 percent of those who "come forward"
at their meetings fall away; and often as not, it is sooner rather than
later. Orthodoxy has never regarded salvation as being a crisis event.
For us, it is a process, a process in which the Christian soul is progressively
transformed into the likeness of Christ; and this we call deification.
While almost all Christians are agreed that baptism is the Christian
initiatory rite, there are wide differences of opinion among them concerning
the nature of baptism. Exactly who should be baptized? Babies, or only
those old enough to understand the nature of the rite? What method should
be used? Sprinkling? Pouring? Immersion? What (if any) is the effect of
baptism?
No subject divides Protestantism more than baptism. To a great
extent it is differences of opinion over baptism that dictate much Protestant
missionary policy, On the mission field, different Protestant denominations
usually enter into "comity agreements". In other words, they
divide up a country with the Baptists agreeing to work exclusively in
one area, the Presbyterians in another and the Anglicans in a third. One
can understand the "logic" of this arrangement. Without it there
would be a situation in which Presbyterians and Anglicans would assure
their converts that babies must be "christened" while down the
road Baptist missionaries would be telling their converts that they must
be baptized as believers by total immersion. The "heathen",
of course, would be utterly baffled; hence the "comity agreements."
But there can be little doubt that many of the "believers" themselves
suffer from no small degree of bafflement. Someone has even written a
book (which I have never read) with the revealing title The Waters That
Divide.
Baptists, the great majority of Pentecostals many other sects and
most independent churches are adamant that baptism is only for believers.
Since a baby is obviously not a believer, among the Baptists and those
who think like them, babies are not baptized. In the denominations which
hold to "believer's baptism", the "candidate" is immersed
on his or her profession of faith. People joining Baptist or Pentecostal
churches from out of "mainline" churches are always told that
they must be baptized as believers by immersion. Quite often Baptists
are highly scornful of infant baptism, deriding it as "infant sprinkling."
Calvin and the large family of Reformed or Presbyterian churches
which derive their theology from him believe strongly in infant baptism.
Baptism, Calvin taught, is the sign of the Christian covenant, just as
circumcision was the sign of the Jewish covenant. And just as babies,
no less than adults, were admitted to the old covenant by the covenant
sign, so also should babies be admitted to the Christian covenant by the
covenant sign of baptism. In addition to the Presbyterians, this doctrine
has been accepted by many "low church" Anglicans.
However, it can be safely said that almost all Protestants are
united on one important point, regardless of whether the "subject"
is infant or adult: baptism does not give new life and has no supernatural
effect whatever. Among the Protestants (or any rate, the Evangelicals),
the supernatural is not to be found in baptism but in "the new birth."
The phrase "born again" is heard a great deal these days, not
always in the sense that Evangelicals mean. If an Evangelical, or perhaps
more specifically, an evangelist, persuades a person without previous
belief in Christianity to become a Christian, the convert is usually said
to be "saved." Often as not, he will be invited to say "a
sinner's prayer," and will then be told by his mentor that he is
"born again." The convert will also probably be told that his
"new birth" has the effect of removing all his sins and giving
him a complete new spiritual start in life by making him a child of God.
He will also be given other advice and exhortations, including the need
for baptism.
What is the purpose of baptism for such a convert? The two answers
usually given are that it is "showing obedience" and it is "the
answer of a good conscience." But "the new birth" is the
supernatural event and it is never suggested that baptism adds anything
further in the way of the supernatural to being "born again."
It is not altogether surprising that two sizable Protestant denominations
— the Quakers and the Salvation Army — have entirely rejected baptism
in any form as being superfluous. The Founder of the Salvation Army, "General"
Booth, excluded baptism from the polity of his movement for two reasons:
1) That he did not regard it as having any salvific effect; and 2) he
wished to avoid wrangles among his followers concerning which of the different
Protestant theories of baptism should be adopted. With baptism discarded..
he invented an initiation ceremony of his own: Salvationist babies are
"dedicated" under the Salvation Army flag. Salvationists consequently
live out their lives and die unbaptised. Ceremonies of "dedication"
are also practiced by the Baptists, Pentecostals and others. There is
of course no New Testament warrant at all for these man-made ceremonies.
From an Orthodox standpoint, supposedly Christian sects that reject baptism
cannot be regarded as anything other than sub-Christian cults.
MISSION, CULTURE
AND THE SACRAMENTS
I have already pointed out that Christianity is itself a culture.
However, Orthodoxy, by its very nature, is distinctively, a sacramental
culture. For the Orthodox missionary, bringing the Holy Mysteries to the
people he is seeking to reach is central to his work.
It is not my purpose to assail Protestant beliefs; but as an Orthodox
I am only stating the obvious when I say that any form of conversion which
has no room for the sacraments is lamentably defective and deformed. The
authentic Christian life is sacramental. Throughout our lives, our Mother
the Church is always available to minister to our spiritual needs. That
ministry is sacramental. It goes without saying that the foundational
sacrament is baptism. Orthodoxy (and it is only fair to add, also the
Roman Catholics and Anglo-Catholics) has always held to baptismal regeneration.
In other words, that spiritual life begins with baptism. Those who deny
that this is so would do well to reflect that Orthodoxy, very definitely,
has the Bible on its side. In the incisive words of that great nineteenth
century Anglican theologian Dr. E.B. Pusey:
The plain letter of Scripture says, "We are saved by baptism,
.. and men say, "We are not saved by baptism." Our Lord says,
"A man must be born of water and the spirit": man, that he need
not, cannot be born of water. Scripture, that "we are saved by the
washing of regeneration" man, that we are not, but by regeneration
which is as a washing. Scripture, that "we are baptized for the remission
of sins": man, that we are not, but to attest that remission. Scripture,
that "whosoever has been baptized into Christ has put on Christ":
man, that he has not. Scripture, that "they have been buried with
Him by baptism into death": man, that they have not. Scripture, that
"Christ cleansed the Church by the washing of water by the word":
man, that he did not, for bare elements could have no such virtue. Scripture,
"that we were baptized into one body": men, that we were not,
but that we were in that body before. Surely they have entered into a
most perilous path, which unless they are checked in pursuing it, must
end in the rejection of all Scripture truth which does not square with
their own previous opinions (Tract on Baptism).
That salvation is attained by baptism, ex opere operato,
has been Christian dogma from the hour that the Apostle Peter told the
Jews of Jerusalem "let ever one of you be baptized in the name of
Jesus Christ for the remission of sins" (Acts 2:38). We see then,
that evangelism alone is not enough; the joy and riches of a life lived
sacramentally must be opened up to every convert. For the new Christian,
baptism marks a point of departure out of chaos into the order and dignity
of a forgiven life.
The fact that baptism confers salvation ex opere operato does
not mean that a newly baptized and chrismated baby is exempt from making
his personal response to follow Christ when he grows up. A relationship
necessarily involves interaction between two parties. The baptized infant
has not yet developed a relationship with God; but one party has already
taken the initiative. Holy baptism is God's saving and sanctifying love
reaching out to the newborn at the very outset of his life. Later in life
the child becomes aware of faith in Jesus Christ. As he looks back, he
realizes that something or someone led him to this act of faith. Eventually,
he realizes that the spiritual life in which he is participating began
with baptism. Innumerable cultures in many parts of the world are shamanistic.
It must be made clear to converts that there is nothing quasi-dagical
in baptism. It can never be divorced from the convert's own response
in faith.
While baptism has a profound effect upon the person being baptized,
whether infant or adult, it also has an all-important social dimension:
the total community of the baptized — in other words the Church — comprise
one company. In the words of St Peter: "You are a chosen generation,
a royal priesthood, a holy nation, His own special people..." (1
Peter 2:9). By definition, baptism is the beginning of Christian life,
not its end. But with baptism there begins the process of deification.
As Christians are deified, so also are they transformed. At the same time
the culture of which they are a part will also be transformed.
CONVERSION AND RENUNCIATION
It goes without saying that if there are aspects of a culture which
are sinful, they must be renounced. In the first century Graeco-Roman
world, St Paul found much to appall and scandalize him. The upshot was
that the Apostle commanded separation. In 2 Cor 6:14-16:
Do not be yoked together with unbelievers. For what
fellowship has righteousness with lawlessness? And what communion has
light with darkness? And what accord has Christ with Belial? Or what part
has a believer with an unbeliever? And what agreement has the temple of
God with idols? For you are the temple of the living God.
Christians are people who should be free from the contamination
of the world. For those from a heathen background, this means renunciation.
The umbilical cord connecting the convert with the old life must be severed.
William Carey, the father of Protestant missions, who labored for many
years in India was adamant that there could be no compromise with this
principle.
From the time of his first arrival in India Carey held that all
non-Christian religions are false and evil. From this firm belief he never
deviated. As well as affirming their faith in Christianity, his converts
were expected to renounce their former beliefs in emphatic terms. Carey
abominated the Hindu caste system. Earlier Roman Catholic missionaries
in southern India had permitted Hindu converts to maintain caste distinctions.
This was something Carey would not countenance. All converts were initially
required to break caste by eating with the missionaries. Brahmin converts
were required to remove their caste emblem, the "sacred thread"
and trample it underfoot. Intermarriage between converts of different
castes was encouraged. Carey's first Indian convert was a man named Krishna
Pal, who was from the Shudra, or laboring caste. Two years after Krishna
Pal's baptism, the first Bengali Christian wedding was solemnized: his
daughter married a Brahmin convert. Ward wrote: "This was a glorious
triumph over caste. A Brahmin married to a Shudra, and in a Christian
form." I know of a young man who was converted out of Islam. Although
no one suggested this to him, he felt a clear leading to destroy his copy
of the Koran. Making almost a ritual of it, he consigned it to the flames.
He felt this was, for him a necessary gesture symbolizing his total renunciation
of Islam and repudiation of its "holy book."
In an African context there must be total separation from, and
renunciation of, the rituals and practices of heathendom. I shall conclude
this paper by giving one example. In the Shona culture, a ceremony is
performed at the grave approximately a year after a death and burial.
The belief is that the spirit of the deceased roams at large for about
a year, and then returns to its earthly home to take up its position as
guardian of its surviving relatives. Part of the graveside ceremony involves
the ritual drinking of specially brewed beer as an offering to ancestral
spirits. Various animal sacrifices are carried out at the grave of the
deceased. It may be an ox, a goat or a chicken. The sacrifice is offered
to placate the spirits of the departed. Other parts of the ritual involves
divination, sorcery and the ministry of a spirit medium. It is believed
that without this ceremony the departed spirit cannot or will not take
its place as guardian of the home.
The Word of God makes it clear that all such practices are totally
unacceptable for Christians. Nothing is more specific about this than
1 Cor 10:20-22: The sacrifices of pagans are offered to demons, not to
God ... You cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons too;
you cannot have a part in both the Lord's table and the table of demons.
In this we have the authentic voice of Holy Scripture. The convert out
of heathendom must separate himself resolutely and irrevocably from the
world, the flesh and the devil.
Read
other writings by His Eminence Metropolitan Makarios in Adventures
in the Unseen
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